dr. M.A.S. (Maarten) Boksem

Maarten Boksem
Rotterdam School of Management (RSM)
Erasmus University Rotterdam
Member ERIM
Field: Marketing
Affiliated since 2010

I have a broad interest in human behaviour and in how the brain orchestrates this behaviour. My current research topics range from the decoding of psychological processes from the brain, to investigating brain responses with naturalistic stimuli (movies), to the neural underpinnings of cheating and deception. I will briefly outline these research lines below.

Cheating, unfairness and deception

Dishonest behaviour, such as tax evasion, music piracy or fraud, is highly prevalent in our society and inflicts huge economic costs. Every day, we are faced with the conflict between the temptation to cheat and deceive for financial gains and maintaining a positive image of ourselves as being a ‘good person’. In this line of research, we investigate the psychological and neural underpinnings of decisions to either cheat and deceive, or to remain fair and honest. We find that particularly individual differences in the engagement of cognitive control and theory of mind drive decisions to be fair and honest (or not). For example, in one study we found that cognitive control may override an individual’s moral default, allowing honest people to cheat, whereas it enables cheaters to be honest. These insights contribute to a deeper understanding of individual differences in honesty and may aid in developing more targeted interventions aiming at reducing dishonesty.

Brains at the movies

In the past, research in neuroscience has used decontextualized stimuli and highly artificial experimental designs to study the neural substrate of cognitive processes. Although this approach has been very successful, as it allows for tightly controlled experiments and straightforward interpretation of results, it has left open the question of how the brain responds to events in more naturalistic settings. In this line of research, we address this issue by investigating how brain processes unfold during movie watching. We find that we can track emotions, engagement and preference that follow the narrative of the presented videos. In addition, we observe that we can not only predict how well individual participants will like the movie they are watching, but also how well others will like this movie. That is, we can predict, from brain activity measured during movie-watching in a small set of participants, to what extent a different set of participants will like this movie, and even estimate how well the movie will do at the box office.

Decoding psychological processes from the brain

The human psyche pretty much remains a black box: we can observe or even manipulate the input a person’s psychological system receives, but not the feelings or cognitive processes that are evoked by this input. Likewise, we can observe the decisions made by the system, but not the feelings or cognitive processes that drove these decisions. In this line of research, we decode these latent processes or states from the brain, using machine learning methods applied to distributed pattern of brain activity. For example, in two studies (one using EEG, and one using fMRI), we presented participants with video content while measuring activity from their brains. Using machine learning, we trained classifiers to accurately decode the emotional experience evoked by these videos in our participants. As another example, in every-day life we observe large differences in honesty and fairness across individuals. In a set of two studies (using fMRI), we decode idiosyncrasies in the underlying motivations for honesty and fairness. We find that particularly individual differences in the engagement of cognitive control and theory of mind drive differences in prosocial behaviour.

Publications

Article (61)

  • Academic (59)

    • Chan, H.-Y., Boksem, M., Venkratraman, V., Dietvorst, RC., Scholz, C., Vo, K., Falk, E. B., & Smidts, A. (2024). Neural signals of video advertisement liking: Insights into psychological processes and their temporal dynamics. Journal of Marketing Research, 61(5), 891-913. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222437231194319

    • van Brussel, L., Boksem, M., Dietvorst, RC., & Smidts, A. (2024). Brain activity of professional investors signals future stock performance. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 121(16), e2307982121. Article e2307982121. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2307982121

    • Speer, S. P. H., Keysers, C., Barrios, J. C., Teurlings, C. J. S., Smidts, A., Boksem, M. A. S., Wager, T. D., & Gazzola, V. (2023). A multivariate brain signature for reward. NeuroImage, 271, Article 119990. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2023.119990

    • Speer, S., Martinovici, A., Smidts, A., & Boksem, M. (2023). The acute effects of stress on dishonesty are moderated by individual differences in moral default. Scientific Reports, 13(1), Article 3984. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31056-2

    • Zhang, C., Beste, C., Prochazkova, L., Wang, K., Speer, S. P. H., Smidts, A., Boksem, M. A. S., & Hommel, B. (2022). Resting-state BOLD signal variability is associated with individual differences in metacontrol. Scientific Reports, 12(1), Article 18425. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-21703-5

    • Speer, S. P. H., Smidts, A., & Boksem, M. A. S. (2022). Cognitive control and dishonesty. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 26(9), 796 - 808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2022.06.005

    • Speer, S. P. H., Smidts, A., & Boksem, M. A. S. (2022). Individual differences in (dis)honesty are represented in the brain's functional connectivity at rest. NeuroImage, 246, Article 118761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118761

    • Speer, S. P., Smidts, A., & Boksem, M. A. S. (2021). Cognitive control promotes either honesty or dishonesty, depending on one's moral default. Journal of Neuroscience, 41(42), 8815-8825. https://doi.org/10.1523/jneurosci.0666-21.2021

    • Speer, S., Smidts, A., & Boksem, M. A. S. (2021). Different neural mechanisms underlie non-habitual honesty and non-habitual cheating. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2021.610429

    • Speer, S., Smidts, A., & Boksem, M. (2020). Cognitive control increases honesty in cheaters but cheating in those who are honest. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S.A., 117(32), 19080-19091. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2003480117

    • Eijlers, E., Boksem, M., & Smidts, A. (2020). Measuring neural arousal for advertisements and its relationship with advertising success. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 14(736). https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2020.00736

    • Couwenberg, L., Boksem, M., Sanfey, AG., & Smidts, A. (2020). Neural mechanisms of choice diversification. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 14, 502. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2020.00502

    • Chan, H., Smidts, A., Schoots, V., Sanfey, AG., & Boksem, M. (2020). Decoding dynamic affective responses to naturalistic videos with shared neural patterns. NeuroImage, 216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.116618

    • Losecaat Vermeer, AB., Boksem, M., & Sanfey, AG. (2020). Third-party decision-making under risk as a function of prior gains and losses. Journal of Economic Psychology, 77(3). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2019.102206

    • Speer, S., & Boksem, M. (2019). Decoding fairness motivations from multivariate brainactivity patterns. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 14(11), 1197–1207. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsz097

    • Eijlers, E., Smidts, A., & Boksem, M. (2019). Implicit measurement of emotional experience and its dynamics. PLoS One (online), 14(2), Article e0211496. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0211496

    • Chan, H., Smidts, A., Schoots, V., Dietvorst, RC., & Boksem, M. (2019). Neural similarity at temporal pole and cerebellum predicts out-of-sample preference and recall for video stimuli. NeuroImage, 197, 391-401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.04.076

    • Chan, H., Boksem, M., & Smidts, A. (2018). Neural profiling of brands: Mapping brand image in consumers' brains with visual templates. Journal of Marketing Research, 55(4), 600-615. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmr.17.0019

    • Tops, M., Quirin, M., Boksem, M. A. S., & Koole, S. L. (2017). Large-scale neural networks and the lateralization of motivation and emotion. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 119, 41-49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2017.02.004

    • Couwenberg, L., Boksem, M., Dietvorst, RC., Worm, L., Verbeke, W., & Smidts, A. (2017). Neural Responses to Functional and Experiential Ad Appeals: Explaining Ad Effectiveness. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 34(2), 355-366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2016.10.005

    • Boksem, M., & Smidts, A. (2015). Brain responses to movietrailers predict individual preferences for movies and their population-wide commercial success. Journal of Marketing Research, 52(4), 482-492. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmr.13.0572

    • Quirin, M., Kent, M., Boksem, M., & Tops, M. (2015). Integration of Negative Experiences: A Neuropsychological Framework for Human Resilience. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 38, 43-44. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X14001666

    • Losecaat Vermeer, AB., Boksem, M., & Sanfey, AG. (2014). Neural mechanisms underlying context-dependent shifts in risk preferences. NeuroImage, 103, 355-363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.09.054

    • Smidts, A., Hsu, M., Sanfey, AG., Boksem, M., Ebstein, RB., Huettel, SA., Kable, JW., Karmarkar, UM., Kitayama, S., Liberzon, I., Knutson, B., Lohrenz, T., Stallen, M., & Yoon, C. (2014). Advancing Consumer Neuroscience. Marketing Letters, 25(3), 257-267. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11002-014-9306-1

    • Tops, M., Boksem, M., Quirin, M., IJzerman, H., & Koole, S. (2014). Internally-directed cognition and mindfulness: An integrative perspective derived from reactive versus predictive control systems theory. Frontiers in Psychology, 5(429). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00429

    • Boksem, M., Mehta, PH., Van den Bergh, B., van Son, V., Trautmann, ST., Roelofs, K., Smidts, A., & Sanfey, AG. (2013). Testosterone Inhibits Trust but Promotes Reciprocity. Psychological Science, 24(11), 2306-2314. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613495063

    • Riem, MME., Van IJzendoorn, MH., Tops, M., Boksem, M., Rombouts, SARB., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, MJ. (2013). Oxytocin effects on complex brain networks are moderated by experiences of maternal love withdrawal. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 23(10), 1288-1295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2013.01.011

    • Tops, M., Boksem, M., & Koole, S. (2013). Subjective effort derives from a neurological monitor of performance costs and physiological resources. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 36(6), 703-704. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X13001167

    • Boksem, M., Smolders, R., & De Cremer, D. (2012). Social power and approach-related neural activity. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 7(5), 516-520. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsp006

    • Boksem, M., Kostermans, E., Milivojevic, B., & De Cremer, D. (2012). Social status determines how we monitor and evaluate our performance. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 7(3), 304-313. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsr010

    • Tops, M., Van IJzendoorn, MH., Riem, MME., Boksem, M., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, MJ. (2012). Oxytocin receptor gene associated with the efficiency of social auditory processing. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 2(60), 1-4. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2011.00060

    • Tops, M., & Boksem, M. (2012). What's that? What went wrong? Positive and negative surprise and the rostral-ventral to caudal-dorsal functional gradient in the brain. Frontiers in Psychology, 3(21), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00021

    • Tops, M., Buisman-Pijlman, F., Boksem, M., Wijers, AA., & Korf, J. (2012). Cortisol-induced increases of plasma oxytocin levels predict decreased immediate free recall of unpleasant words. Frontiers in Psychology, 3(43). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2012.00043

    • Van der Helden, J., & Boksem, M. (2012). Medial Frontal Negativity reflects learning from positive feedback. Psychophysiology, 49(8), 1109-1113. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.2012.01388.x

    • Boksem, M., Kostermans, E., Tops, M., & De Cremer, D. (2012). Individual differences in asymmetric resting-state frontal cortical activity modulate ERPs and performance in a Global-Local attention task. Journal of Psychophysiology, 26(2), 51-62. https://doi.org/10.1027/0269-8803/a000067

    • Riem, MME., Van IJzendoorn, MH., Tops, M., Boksem, M., Rombouts, SARB., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, MJ. (2012). No Laughing Matter: Intranasal Oxytocin Administration Changes Functional Brain Connectivity during Exposure to Infant Laughter. Neuropsychopharmacology, 37, 1257-1266. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2011.313

    • Boksem, M., Kostermans, E., & De Cremer, D. (2011). Failing where others have succeeded - Medial Frontal Negativity tracks failure in a social context. Psychophysiology, 48(7), 973-979. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.2010.01163.x

    • Tops, M., & Boksem, M. (2011). Cortisol involvement in mechanisms of behavioural inhibition. Psychophysiology, 48(5), 723-732. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.2010.01131.x

    • Boksem, M., Ruys, KI., & Aarts, H. (2011). Facing disapproval: Performance monitoring in a social contex. Social Neuroscience, 6(4), 360-368. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470919.2011.556813

    • Riem, MME., Bakermans-Kranenburg, MJ., Pieper, S., Tops, M., Boksem, M., Vermeiren, RRJM., Van IJzendoorn, MH., & Rombouts, SARB. (2011). Oxytocin Modulates Amygdala, Insula, and Inferior Frontal Gyrus Responses to Infant Crying: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Biological Psychiatry, 70(3), 291-297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.02.006

    • Tops, M., & Boksem, M. (2011). A potential role of the inferior frontal gyrus and anterior insula in cognitive control, brain rhythms, and event-related potentials. Frontiers in Psychology, 2(330). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00330

    • Tops, M., Boksem, M., Luu, P., & Tucker, DM. (2010). Brain substrates of behavioral programs associated with self regulation. Frontiers in Psychology. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2010.00152

    • Tops, M., & Boksem, M. (2010). Absorbed in the task: Personality measures predict engagement during task performance as tracked by error negativity and asymmetrical frontal acitivity. Cognitive, Affective and Behavioral Neuroscience, 20(4), 441-453. https://doi.org/10.3758/CABN.10.4.441

    • Boksem, M., Van der Helden, J., & Blom, JHG. (2010). The Importance of Failure: Feedback Related Negativity Predicts Motor Learning Efficiency. Cerebral Cortex, 20(7), 1596-1603. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhp224

    • Boksem, M., & De Cremer, D. (2010). Fairness Concerns Predict Medial Frontal Negativity Amplitude in Ultimatum Bargaining. Social Neuroscience, 5(1), 118-125. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470910903202666

    • Tops, M., & Boksem, M. (2010). Concerns over mistakes predicts the amplitude of the error-related negativity, error positivity and frontal alpha power asymmetry. Psychophysiology, 47, s94-s94.

    • Boksem, M., & Van der Helden, J. (2010). Scream or praise? How personality differences relate to the effectiveness of punishments and rewards for efficient learning. Psychophysiology, 47, s102-s103.

    • Tops, M., Russo, S., Boksem, M., & Tucker, DM. (2009). Serotonin: modulator of a drive to withdraw. Brain and Cognition, 71(3), 427-436.

    • Boksem, M., Tops, M., Kostermans, E., & De Cremer, D. (2008). Sensitivity to punishment and reward omission: Evidence from error-related ERP components. Biological Psychology, 79(2), 185-192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2008.04.010

    • Boksem, M., & Tops, M. (2008). Mental fatigue: Costs and benefits. Brain Research Reviews, 59, 125-139.

    • Tops, M., & Boksem, M. (2008). Cortisol, energiemobilisatie en chronische vermoeidheid. NeuroPraxis, 12(4), 126-132.

    • Tops, M., Boksem, M., Wijers, AA., Van Duinen, H., Den Boer, JA., Meijman, TF., & Korf, J. (2007). The psychobiology of burnout: Are there two different syndromes? Neuropsychobiology, 55, 143-150.

    • Tops, M., Boksem, M., Wester, AE., Lorist, MM., & Meijman, TF. (2006). Task engagement and the relationships between the error-related negativity, agreeableness, behavioral shame proneness and cortisol. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 31, 847-858.

    • Boksem, M., Tops, M., Wester, AE., Lorist, MM., & Meijman, TF. (2006). Error Related ERP Components and Individual Differences in Punishment and Reward Sensitivity. Brain Research, 1101, 92-101.

    • Boksem, M., Meijman, TF., & Lorist, MM. (2006). Mental fatigue, motivation and action monitoring. Biological Psychology, 42(2), 123-132.

    • Lorist, M. M., Boksem, M. A. S., & Ridderinkhof, K. R. (2005). Impaired cognitive control and reduced cingulate activity during mental fatigue. Cognitive Brain Research, 24(2), 199-205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2005.01.018

    • Boksem, M., Lorist, MM., & Meijman, TF. (2005). Effects of mental fatigue on attention: an ERP study. Brain Research, 25, 106-117.

    • Wijers, AA., & Boksem, M. (2005). Selective attention and error processing in an illusory conjunction task: an event-related brain potential study. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 19(3), 216-231.

    • Lorist, MM., Boksem, M., & Ridderinkhof, KR. (2005). Impaired control and reduced cingulate activity during mental fatigue. Brain Research, 24, 199-205.

  • Professional (2)

    • Boksem, M., & Smidts, A. (2016). Voorspelt EEG filmsucces? Psychologische processen in het brein. Tijdschrift voor Marketing, (Maart), 44-47.

    • Boksem, M. (2015). Can brain responses to movie trailers predict success? RSM Discovery - Management Knowledge, 22(2), 5-7. http://hdl.handle.net/1765/78359

Chapter (6)

  • Academic (2)

    • Tops, M., Luu, P., Boksem, M. A. S., & Tucker, D. M. (2013). The Role of Predictive and Reactive Biobehavioral Programs in Resilience. In M. Kent, M. C. Davis, & J. W. Reich (Eds.), The Resilience Handbook: Approaches to Stress and Trauma (1st edition ed., pp. 21-38). Routledge (Taylor & Francis Group).

    • Boksem, M., & De Cremer, D. (2009). Morality and the brain. In D. De Cremer (Ed.), Psychological perspectives on ethical behavior and decision making (pp. 153-166). Information Age Publishing.

  • Professional (4)

    • Smidts, A., & Boksem, M. A. S. (2021). Neuromarketing: Wat is het en wat kunnen we ermee? In Y. M. Van Everdingen (Ed.), Tools for capturing information to improve business insights: MOA Topic of the Year 2021 (pp. 12-22). MOA, Expertise Center voor Marketing-insights, Onderzoek & Analytics.

    • Eijlers, E., Smidts, A., & Boksem, M. (2020). Implicit measurement of emotional experience and its dynamics. In Neuromarketing Yearbook 2020 NMSBA.

    • Chan, H., Boksem, M., & Smidts, A. (2019). Neural profiling of brands: Mapping brand image in consumers' brains with visual templates. In Neuromarketing Yearbook 2019 NMSBA.

    • Boksem, M., & Smidts, A. (2015). Your brain on movie trailers – How brain responses to movie trailers predict individual preferences for movies and their population-wide commercial success. In Neuromarketing Yearbook 2015 NMSBA.

Conference proceeding (3)

  • Academic (3)

    • Speer, S., & Boksem, M. (2020). Decoding fairness motivations from multivariate brain activity patterns. In Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsz097

    • Tops, M., Boksem, M., & Wester, AE. (2005). Error-related potentials: relations with reward and punishment sensitivity, and cortisol reactivity. In - (Vol. 42, pp. s18-s19)

    • Wijers, AA., & Boksem, M. (2003). Selective attention and error processing in an illusory conjunction paradigm: ERPs fail to confirm the special status of conjunction errors. In - (Vol. 17, 3, pp. 141-141)

Doctoral Thesis (1)

  • External (1)

    • Boksem, M. (2006). Mental fatigue: Costs and benefits. [Doctoral Thesis, University of Groningen]. RUG.

Web publication/site (7)

  • Professional (7)

    • Speer, S., Smidts, A., & Boksem, M. (2020). Why honest people cheat. Web publication/site, RSM Discovery.

    • Speer, S., & Boksem, M. (2020). How brain measures can help to understand fairness. Web publication/site, RSM Discovery.

    • Chan, H., Boksem, M., & Smidts, A. (2019). All in the mind? How neuroscience can help measure the emotional impact of brand image and video engagement. Web publication/site

    • Chan, H., Smidts, A., & Boksem, M. (2019). Brain scans reveal engagement levels of videos. Web publication/site, RSM Discovery.

    • Eijlers, E., Smidts, A., & Boksem, M. (2019). Tracking emotions real time in the brain. Web publication/site, RSM Discovery.

    • Chan, H., Boksem, M., & Smidts, A. (2018). Identifying strong brands in the brain. Web publication/site, RSM Discovery.

    • Couwenberg, L., Boksem, M., & Smidts, A. (2017). Brain scans reveal what makes a TV advert effective. Web publication/site, RSM Discovery.

PhD Tracks (12)

  • Role: Daily Supervisor, Co-promotor
  • Role: Daily Supervisor
Behavioural and Neural Evidence for Processes Underlying Biases in Decision-Making
  • Role: Daily Supervisor, Co-promotor
  • PhD Candidate: Catalina Ratala
  • Time frame: 2012 - 2022
Context Dependent Valuation. A neuroscientific perspective on consumer decision-making
  • Role: Daily Supervisor, Co-promotor
  • PhD Candidate: Linda Couwenberg
  • Time frame: 2012 - 2020
Emotional Experience and Advertising Effectiveness: On the use of EEG in marketing
  • Role: Daily Supervisor, Co-promotor
  • PhD Candidate: Esther Eijlers
  • Time frame: 2013 - 2020
Decoding the consumer’s brain: Neural representations of consumer experience
  • Role: Co-promotor, Daily Supervisor
  • PhD Candidate: Hang-Yee Chan
  • Time frame: 2014 - 2020
Hour of Judgment: On judgment, decision making, and problem solving under accountability
  • Role: Daily Supervisor, Co-promotor
  • PhD Candidate: Aljaž Sluga
  • Time frame: 2015 - 2021
The (dis)honest and (un)fair brain Investigating the neural underpinnings of moral decisions
  • Role: Daily Supervisor, Co-promotor
  • PhD Candidate: Sebastian Speer
  • Time frame: 2016 - 2021
Doctoral Research in Marketing (Decision Neuroscience)
  • Role: Co-promotor, Daily Supervisor
  • PhD Candidate: Leonard Diederik van Brussel
  • Time frame: 2019 -
  • Role: Co-promotor
Doctoral Research in Marketing (Marketing Science, Consumer Behaviour or Consumer Neuroscience
  • Role: Co-promotor, Daily Supervisor
  • PhD Candidate: Ting-Yi Lin
  • Time frame: 2021 -
PhD position in Decision Neuroscience
  • Role: Co-promotor
  • PhD Candidate: Valerio Maglianella
  • Time frame: 2023 -

Course (1)

Past
  • Specialization Module on Consumer Behavior (2023/2024)

Events (2)

2016
November
08
Consumer Behaviour in the Digital Economy
ERIM Conference
As: Speaker
2012
June
14
NPE 2012 Pre-Conference Workshop: "Advances in Neuroscientific Methods"
Conference
As: Speaker

Award (1)

  • Fellowship - ERIM early career talent programme (2010)

Address

Visiting address

Office: Mandeville Building T10-09
Burgemeester Oudlaan 50
3062 PA Rotterdam

Postal address

Postbus 1738
3000 DR Rotterdam
Netherlands

Research Initiatives

Latest publication

Article

Chan, H.-Y., Boksem, M., Venkratraman, V., Dietvorst, RC., Scholz, C., Vo, K., Falk, E. B., & Smidts, A. (2024). Neural signals of video advertisement liking: Insights into psychological processes and their temporal dynamics. Journal of Marketing Research, 61(5), 891-913. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222437231194319